Systemic infection and proliferation of intracellular pathogens require the biogenesis of a growth-stimulating compartment. The gastrointestinal pathogen Salmonella enterica commonly forms highly dynamic and extensive tubular membrane compartments built from Salmonella-modified membranes (SMMs) in diverse host cells. Although the general mechanism involved in the formation of replication-permissive compartments of S. enterica is well researched, much less is known regarding specific adaptations to different host cell types. Using an affinity-based proteome approach, we explored the composition of SMMs in murine macrophages. The systematic characterization provides a broader landscape of host players to the maturation of Salmonella-containing compartments and reveals core host elements targeted by Salmonella in macrophages as well as epithelial cells. However, we also identified subtle host specific adaptations. Some of these observations, such as the differential involvement of the COPII system, Rab GTPases 2A, 8B, 11 and ER transport proteins Sec61 and Sec22B may explain cell line-dependent variations in the pathophysiology of Salmonella infections. In summary, our system-wide approach demonstrates a hitherto underappreciated impact of the host cell type in the formation of intracellular compartments by Salmonella.

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B*51:01 and endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 1 (ERAP1) are strongly genetically associated with Behcet's disease (BD). Previous studies have defined two subgroups of HLA-B*51 peptidome containing proline (Pro) or alanine (Ala) at position 2 (P2). Little is known about the unconventional non-Pro/Ala2 HLA-B*51-bound peptides. We aimed to study the features of this novel subpeptidome, and investigate its regulation by ERAP1. CRISPR-Cas9 was used to generate an HLA-ABC-triple knockout HeLa cell line (HeLa.ABC-KO), which was subsequently transduced to express HLA-B*51:01 (HeLa.ABC-KO.B51). ERAP1 was silenced using lentiviral shRNA. Peptides bound to HLA-B*51:01 were eluted and analyzed by mass spectrometry. The characteristics of non-Pro/Ala2, Pro2, and Ala2 peptides and their alteration by ERAP1 silencing were investigated. Effects of ERAP1 silencing on cell surface expression of HLA-B*51:01 were studied using flow cytometry. More than 20% of peptides eluted from HLA-B*51:01 lacked Pro or Ala at P2. This unconventional group of HLA-B*51:01-bound peptides was relatively enriched for 8-mers (with relatively fewer 9-mers) compared with the Pro2 and Ala2 subpeptidomes and had similar N-terminal and C-terminal residue usages to Ala2 peptides (with the exception of the less abundant leucine at position ). Knockdown of ERAP1 increased the percentage of non-Pro/Ala2 from 20% to ~40%, increased the percentage of longer (10-mer and 11-mer) peptides eluted from HLA-B*51:01 complexes, and abrogated the predominance of leucine at P1. Interestingly knockdown of ERAP1 altered the length and N-terminal residue usage of non-Ala2&Pro2 and Ala2 but not the Pro2 peptides. Finally, ERAP1 silencing regulated the expression levels of cell surface HLA-B*51 in a cell-type-dependent manner. In conclusion, we have used a novel methodology to identify an unconventional but surprisingly abundant non-Pro/Ala2 HLA-B*51:01 subpeptidome. It is increased by knockdown of ERAP1, a gene affecting the risk of developing BD. This has implications for theories of disease pathogenesis.

The redox-based modifications of cysteine residues in proteins regulate their function in many biological processes. The gas molecule H₂S has been shown to persulfidate redox sensitive cysteine residues resulting in an H₂S-modified proteome known as the sulfhydrome. Tandem Mass Tags (TMT) multiplexing strategies for large-scale proteomic analyses have become increasingly prevalent in detecting cysteine modifications. Here we developed a TMT-based proteomics approach for selectively trapping and tagging cysteine persulfides in the cellular proteomes. We revealed the natural protein sulfhydrome of two human cell lines, and identified insulin as a novel substrate in pancreatic beta cells. Moreover, we showed that under oxidative stress conditions, increased H₂S can target enzymes involved in energy metabolism by switching specific cysteine modifications to persulfides. Specifically, we discovered a Redox Thiol Switch, from protein S-glutathioinylation to S-persulfidation (RTS^GS). We propose that the RTS^GS from S-glutathioinylation to S-persulfidation is a potential mechanism to fine tune cellular energy metabolism in response to different levels of oxidative stress.