Woodpeckers and other cavity-excavating birds worldwide are keystone species. These birds excavate their nests out of solid wood, and because their nests are often well protected against predators and the environment, other species use and compete for their old, vacant nests. The presence of cavity-excavating birds in forests has far-reaching effects on species richness and ecosystem health.

With the passage of the Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960, the U.S. Forest Service has managed its 193 million acres of forest and grassland for multiple uses, including timber, watersheds, and wildlife. Using today’s terminology, some of these purposes are considered ecosystem services, which encompass a breadth of benefits provided by forests, including their ability to absorb and store atmospheric carbon, a greenhouse gas linked to climate change.

Resource managers have long mapped biophysical forest data. Often lacking, however, is relevant social science data for understanding the variety of human needs a given landscape fulfills.

Increasing the population of spring Chinook salmon and summer steelhead in Washington state’s Methow River is a goal of the Upper Columbia Spring Chinook Salmon and Steelhead Recovery Plan. Spring Chinook salmon and summer steelhead are listed as endangered and threatened, respectively, under the Endangered Species Act.

Although burned trees are the most visible damage following a wildfire, a forest’s soil can also be damaged. The heat generated by a wildfire can alter the soil’s physical properties and kill the fungi and bacteria that are responsible for nutrient cycling and other ecosystem services. What isn’t well understood is the extent of the heating within the soil and how quickly the soil recovers.

Millions of people head to federal lands every year for recreation—891 million visits in 2016 alone. These visits have significant economic implications, not only for restaurants, resorts, outfitters, and other businesses near recreation sites, but also for the people actually participating in outdoor recreation.

Diameter growth is seasonal in Douglas-fir, the evergreen tree found in much of western Washington, Oregon, and northern California. Initiation and cessation of diameter growth are both triggered by environmental cues. The tree responds to these cues to improve its chances of growing under favorable conditions. As environmental conditions change, however, land managers want to know how warmer summers and falls may affect diameter growth in Douglas-fir.

Wildfires consume existing forest fuels but also leave behind dead shrubs and trees that become fuel to future wildfires. Harvesting firekilled trees is sometimes proposed as an economical approach for reducing future fuels and wildfire severity. Postfire logging, however, is controversial. Some question its fuel reduction benefits and its ecological impacts.

The marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) is a threatened coastal bird that feeds on fish and nests in old-growth forests. In northwest Washington, murrelet populations are declining despite protections provided by the Northwest Forest Plan.

Old-growth forests provide unique habitat features and landscape functions compared to younger stands. The goals of many forest management plans in the Pacific Northwest include increasing the area of late-successional and old-growth forests.

Over the past 30 years, the Pacific Northwest Interagency Natural Areas Committee has promoted the establishment and management of natural areas in Oregon and Washington--protected areas devoted to research, education, and conservation of biodiversity.

We used two data sets to evaluate stream and watershed condition for sixth-field watersheds in each aquatic province within the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) area: stream data and upslope data. The stream evaluation was based on inchannel data (e.g., substrate, pieces of large wood, water temperature, pool frequency, and macroinvertebrates) we sampled from 2002 to 2009 (193 watersheds) as part of a repeating sample design. We just completed our first round of sampling, so only current condition was calculated for this data set. When condition scores for the inchannel data were grouped into categories, relatively few fell into the low (10 percent) and very low (1 percent) categories. The majority of inchannel attribute scores fell into the moderate (35 percent) and high (41 percent) condition ranges, with relatively few (12 percent) in the very high category. For low-scoring watersheds, water temperature was often the most influential factor. Aquatic invertebrate scores also appeared influential in producing the low scores.

At last a stable cross browser method of centering a variable width float left dropdown menu.

Tree Frog menu revised to have scrolling sub menu lists to save space.

A fluid layout with max/min width, header/footer and multiple percentage columns ALL reaching the footer using NO images.

A set of 7 variations on the 3 column equal height theme. All full width with header and footer, a mixture of fixed and percentage column widths and no images.

A centered dropdown menu, using the latest centering technique, with flyout images

A centered dropline, dropdown, flyout menu, using the latest centering technique, with current selection option

An update to one of my early 'one page' demonstrations to bring it up to date using the latest CSS techniques.

A second version of the tabbed pages with a default page open on entry.

A photograph gallery with hover to show large images with linking to full size images or another page.

A dropline menu which uses sliding doors tabs for the top level and a horizontal scrolling dropline which has images and caption.

A simplified method of producing a centered dropdown and flyout menu with variable widths depending on text content.

A flyout version of the 'any width' dropdown menu.

A restyled version that allows dropdowns and flyouts to the left and right. Centered top level list and different color sub levels. Even works in IE5.5.

A second 'any width' flyout menu, this time with an over run area and gapping between menu items.

After much searching of the web and with the arrival of IE8, I now have a method of positioning horizontal menus of unknown width left / center / right in the containing element.

A dropdown menu with any width sub menus and the option of left or right dropdown/flyouts.

A single level dropdown menu with multi-columns, headings and curved corners using sliding doors techniques for the dropdowns.

A single level dropdown anywidth menu with dropdown that are centered beneath the top level links.

A dropline anywidth menu with droplines that are centered beneath the top level links which are also centered.

A multi level dropdown flyout anywidth menu with dropdown and flyouts that are centered beneath the top level links, with the ability to have a left or right flyout.

A three link block of information with rollover effect.

A version 2 of the dropline, dropdown and flyout hybrid menu.

An anywidth menu with the top level centered and the sub menus as wide as required with pullup and flyout left/right.

A dropline with dropdown menu which has widths automatiaclly set to suit content, the top level centered and all sub levels centered beneath the parent item.

Back to basics to show how to use the latest techniques to produce a flyout menu with the widths of the sub levels automatically sized to fit the longest text.

A previous professional droplist menu with the additional feature of a dropline heading with droplists giving extra lists within the same dropdown.

A droplist menu using top level blocks containing images with text and links.

Fixing a problem when having vertical divide lines between horizontal link and using rollover images.

Afer all this time there is finally a dropdown menu that doesn't use javascript, table, conditional comments, hacks, extra markup and works in all the major browsers including IE6.

A definition list menu using the new menu system to simplify the styling

Using the latest techniques for no hacks menus this is a vertical slide version with all the features of the dropdown menu including tabbing, and the sub list stays open when clicking the top level.

Using the latest techniques for no hacks menus this is a vertical flyout version with all the features of the slide menu including tabbing, and the sub list stays open when clicking the top level.

A fly left version of the previous menu, again with no hacks, table, conditional comments or javascript.

A horizontal pullup menu to continue with this series, again with no hacks, table, conditional comments or javascript.

For those who prefer nested unordered lists for their menus, again with no hacks, table, conditional comments or javascript.

Added a click to open and also a reclick to close feature.

A CSS ONLY answer for 'max-width' in IE6. No javascript or Microsoft expressions.

A zoom icon with a popup sub menu in a speech bubble.