Peripheral taste neurons exhibit functional, genetic, and morphological diversity, yet understanding how or if these attributes combine into taste neuron types remains unclear. In this study, we used male and female mice to relate taste bud innervation patterns to the function of a subset of proenkephalin-expressing (Penk+) taste neurons. We found that taste arbors (the portion of the axon within the taste bud) stemming from Penk+ neurons displayed diverse branching patterns and lacked stereotypical endings. The range in complexity observed for individual taste arbors from Penk+ neurons mirrored the entire population, suggesting that taste arbor morphologies are not primarily regulated by the neuron type. Notably, the distinguishing feature of arbors from Penk+ neurons was their propensity to come within 110 nm (in apposition with) different types of taste-transducing cells within the taste bud. This finding is contrary to the expectation of genetically defined taste neuron types that functionally represent a single stimulus. Consistently, further investigation of Penk+ neuron function revealed that they are more likely to respond to innately aversive stimuli—sour, bitter, and high salt concentrations—as compared with the full taste population. Penk+ neurons are less likely to respond to nonaversive stimuli—sucrose, umami, and low salt—compared with the full population. Our data support the presence of a genetically defined neuron type in the geniculate ganglion that is responsive to innately aversive stimuli. This implies that genetic expression might categorize peripheral taste neurons into hedonic groups, rather than simply identifying neurons that respond to a single stimulus.

Basolateral amygdala (BLA) neurons are engaged by emotionally salient stimuli. An area of increasing interest is how BLA dynamics relate to evolving reward-seeking behavior, especially under situations of uncertainty or ambiguity. Here, we recorded the activity of individual BLA neurons in male rats across the acquisition and extinction of conditioned reward seeking. We assessed ongoing neural dynamics in a task where long reward cue presentations preceded an unpredictable, variably time reward delivery. We found that, with training, BLA neurons discriminated the CS+ and CS– cues with sustained cue-evoked activity that correlated with behavior and terminated only after reward receipt. BLA neurons were bidirectionally modulated, with a majority showing prolonged inhibition during cued reward seeking. Strikingly, population-level analyses revealed that neurons showing cue-evoked inhibitions and those showing excitations similarly represented the CS+ and behavioral state. This sustained population code rapidly extinguished in parallel with conditioned behavior. We next assessed the contribution of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), a major reciprocal partner to the BLA. Inactivation of the OFC while simultaneously recording in the BLA revealed a blunting of sustained cue-evoked activity in the BLA that accompanied reduced reward seeking. Optogenetic disruption of BLA activity and OFC terminals in the BLA also reduced reward seeking. Our data indicate that the BLA represents reward-seeking states via sustained, bidirectional cue-driven neural encoding. This code is regulated by cortical input and is important for the maintenance of vigilant reward-seeking behavior.

Basketball is not played much in South Africa, but OM SportsLink successfully introduces the game to students in Mamelodi, a township outside of Pretoria.

If you only owned the ground you stood on, how would you make the most out of it? A creative idea becomes a sustainable reality.

Norwegian Bible school students on mission trip to South Africa, shares the Gospel at the garbage dump outside Pretoria

While other couples in their fifties talk about retirement, Philip and Riana Dyason are talking about a new beginning: pioneer ministry in Russia.

Typically, at least two discarded babies are found in the Mamelodi City Dump every week. AIDS Hope seeks to eliminate this horrible reality.

Opening a ‘baby safe’ in a township near Pretoria, South Africa, helps desperate mothers find a solution and give their babies a future.

OM SportsLink ministers to young boys in Mamelodi, the largest township of Pretoria, South Africa, every Friday.

In October, 140 people take the Table Mountain Challenge in Cape Town and Franschhoek, South Africa, as part of the Freedom Climb.

Australian outreach participant Kathryn Jenkin testifies to how God used her prayers while on outreach in Lesotho.

Durban, South Africa :: Logos Hope is helping promote The Bible App for Kids in South Africa with OneHope

For the past two years OM South Africa SportsLink has attended a prestigious rugby tournament to spread the good news to players, coaches and staff.

Marleen was challenged to create reading curriculum for kids by what she saw while climbing Mount Everest in Nepal.

Missions Discipleship Training in South Africa is not a wasted six months--it's a springboard into your calling, preparing and equipping you for the real deal.

After leading AIDS Hope for the past 11 years, Nico and Alma hand over the leadership of Meetse a Bophelo centre in Mamelodi.

For the OM Africa communications and media team, the latest and greatest thing is a duck.

Three patients in a hospital for drug addicts pray a prayer of repentance after hearing testimonies from students in OM Russia’s missions school.

A girl named Anastasia, growing up between alcoholics and drug addicts, is reunited with her father who years before became a Christian.

The OM Russia Discipleship Centre opens its doors to 13 new students in September and opens a second OM building on the site.

OM Russia’s Student Christian Centre, in partnership with the local Evangelical Church, reaches universities in Novosibirsk. The project leader shares about plans for this year.

After watching others be baptised, an Uzbek lady who had recently repented in the church expressed her desire to follow the others’ example.

The students of OM Russia's Discipleship Centre practice sharing their faith with those from a Muslim background.

OM Russia's short-term outreach team travels across Russia sharing about Christ with as many travellers as possible.

OMer Sasha looks for solutions to breaking the downward cycle of poverty, neglect and lack of education plaguing two disadvantaged families in Novosibirsk, Siberia.

Students of OM Russia's Discipleship Centre learn not only through theory but by hands-on practical experience.

OM Russia partners with local churches to respond to the needs of Ukrainian refugees in Novosibirsk, Siberia.

Four years after a member of OM Russia befriended her, an Uzbek lady in Novosibirsk came to faith.

An OM Russia worker helps a young mother and her children living in a desperate situation.

The church in Russia is facing a new threat-HIV/AIDS. OM Russia works in rehab-centres to show God's love and compassion.

The story of Yury, who came to Christ in prison.

A Dutch team member shares her mission trip experience praying with a man in Siberia.

OM Russia had a great kick-off to the STM summer season by serving in a camp for children with disabilities to hear about Christ.

OM Russia hosted and participated in AIDSLink International’s (ALI) Channels of Hope Facilitator Training©.

A team member from the USA who participated in a short-term trip on the Trans-Siberian railroad across Russia shares her experience.

A Discipleship centre student from an unreached people group meets a girl with the same ethnic background and tells to her about salvation.

A woman from a least-reached group of people accepted Christ during Discipleship Centre student outreach.

OM, in cooperation with the local church, has sent believers to serve in a village where unreached people groups live. Shortly after, some local people repented and decided to follow Jesus. Now a vibrant church has been started.

OM Philippines sees signs of hope in the midst of tragic loss while extending help to churches wrecked by Typhoon Pablo (Bopha).

OM Philippines will host three training sessions this month in an effort to see sustainable, transformational and developmental ministries grow in Cebu City.

The OM Philippines-Cebu team, in partnership with the local church, touches the lives of young and old through a five-day Bible class.

Marie Reyes from Australia led the Out of the Comfort Zone Cebu team, and shares lessons she learnt during the two-week outreach.

Students from OM Philippines-Cebu's Alternative Learning System bring children joy through a Christmas party, following the trauma caused by Bohol earthquake and Typhoon Haiyan.

An Out of the Comfort Zone team experiences island life as they bring Christ’s love to children and families on Gilutungan and Kinatarcan Island.

OM Philippines celebrates 25 years of transforming lives and communities.

A teenage girl's courage and boldness opens door for family´s salvation (Philippines).

One hundred Filipino teens, aged 12-18 are expected to come to the five-day event of fun, learning and life-changing encounters in Cebu.

A group who started a funeral cooperative but registered it as a church learns what it means to be a real church.

God is working to transform lives in Mozambique through the efforts of the local OM team.

Limardes Domingo, an OM worker in Mecula, Mozambique, has seen church growth over two years through God's faithful answers to prayer.